Kolb describes four dominant learning styles which are always a combination of two learning preferences on two dimensions: "Feeling versus thinking" and "watching versus doing". @media (max-width: 1171px) { .sidead300 { margin-left: -20px; } } Morris, T. H. (2020). Lets jump in and look at each of the four steps, and then well look at the four learning styles. participants develop their own theory. The generalisation (Abstract 2023 Dotdash Media, Inc. All rights reserved. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. They are good at thinking on their feet and changing their plans spontaneously in response to new information. cycle. group-working situations, and in tackling research exercises. The usual way you train people might be to transmit information to them via a presentation. Here is how you might approach each of the four stages of the learning cycle. Produces mindset changes. In time those results are in the newer ways. Abstract Conceptualisation: You give each team member a book to study that explains coaching theory and best practices. developed a theory of experiential learning which gives us a useful model by Kolb believed that there are four different stages of learning: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Reflective Observation: You invite your team to talk about and share what they learned from their coaching experience. Active Experimentation: You employ an expert coach to mentor each of your team members as they consider coaching others. They are concrete learning, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation. Our academic writing and marking services can help you! In the other three stages they review, analyse and evaluate this activity: Process: Reflective observation: reviewing/reflecting on the experience. particularly She is interested in languages and is an experienced teacher of English. are transitions between phases, and occasionally (especially if the trainer is Learning algebra: Abstract . conclusions that might generally or theoretically apply to real Some of this training will happen through courses and accreditations, but much of it will occur between team members or from manager to team. Toward a Typology of Learning Styles and Learning Environments: an Investigation of the Impact of Learning Styles and Discipline Demands on the Academic Performance, Social Adaptation and Career Choices of MIT Seniors. The results also indicated that students who were pursuing a degree aligned with their learning style had a greater commitment to their field than did students who were pursuing degrees not related to their learning preferences. The authors posit that Kolb's four learning modes and styles provide a guiding structure for professional coaches to individualise their approach to coaching leaders to overcome the. People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications. It helps to facilitate focusing on individual development in the step by step manner. People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. David Kolb published this reflective cycle in 1984. The cycle comprises four different stages of learning from experience. Most frequently, -the generalizing and Note that you dont have to start at the first stage presented here; you can begin at any stage you like. They prefer to take the practical and experimental approach. educational experience for the group. by the process of working through the cycle, in which case it may be appropriate to test them all in Unintentionally, I experienced the Kolb process through my . Also Read:What To Mention In Your Nursing Assignment To Make It Perfect? The Modern American College (pp. Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. You must do it yourself for learning to occur. It helps to look into the experience to understand and analyse it better before applying any actions. One of the most essential aspects of this theory is that each step of the cycle corresponds to a distinct learning style. This step aims to create a concrete experience through actually doing. Kolb reflective model has four main stages in which the complete process is carried out. . proposed may not be a good fit for all reflective situations, and may also require articulation with The benefits of Kolbs learning cycle include: The disadvantages of Kolbs learning cycle include: Kolbs learning cycle consists of four stages of action that have to take place for effective learning to have taken place; feeling, observing, thinking, and doing. It is conceivable that the process of going through the cycle has elicited a number of plausible alternative methods, in which case it may be useful to try them all in actual settings. Gibbs reflective cycle has six stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan. In one 1973 survey of students, Kolb and Goldman found that there was a correlation between student learning styles and their chosen departmental major.. Concrete Experience - the learner encounters a concrete We have the best academic experts who can help you clear your doubts or provide you the kolb reflective cycle reference. Why do some team members work hard while others []. To do this, you dont just look at what youve just done; you also pull in other information, theories, and ideas youre already familiar with. He included this in his book Learning By Doing. For Kolb, any process of learning, including learning as a consequence of embarking on an instance of reflection, begins with a concrete - real - experience. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. assimilators like to take time to think through the relative merits of different positions, and can rather than the model being purely concerned with reflection. Effective training strategies which A converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities. They have rich experience and solve various queries of the students. When solving problems, they typically use a trial-and-error approach. Check your work against plagiarism & get a free Plagiarism report! Thus, this is the summary of the difference between Kolb and Gibbs reflective cycle. which to develop training practice. This can be straining emotionally without the proper leader or any mentor. Only actual live experience gives the learner the complete picture. This is called The Kolb Cycle. Given that you have numerous employees on your team, everyone of them is likely to have a distinct preferred learning style. life.. If you want to learn more about different teaching styles, read more on our 2 day Teach the Teacher / Train the Trainers course for doctors, recognised for portfolio and for CCT purposes. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. by the following questions: The trainer structures this part of the This theory is mainly focused on the learners cognitive process. cycle in which the participants form conclusions and generalizations which So for better understanding, let's dive into the concept. David Kolb published his experiential learning cycle in 1984. Still need clarification or are unable to complete your academic task and avail of our writing services. What did I feel before this situation took place? Kolb's reflective cycle has four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. If you dont plan to use what youve just learned, then its likely that youll forget it quickly. Kolb developed a theory of experiential learning which gives us a useful model by which to develop training practice. Graham Gibbs created the Gibbs reflective cycle to provide structure to learning from experiences. There may be an emphasis on technical or technological themes, as well as experimenting as a means of discovering the world. Here are some ideas on how to approach each of the four stages of the learning cycle. In this stage, you make sense of what you have just experienced. No votes so far! Note that the model is continuous, meaning you can pass through the four steps many times. Kolbs learning theory gives pupils several opportunities to choose their preferred learning style. To this sense, Kolbs experiential learning cycle might be employed in conjunction with another, more reflection-specific, model of reflection. Learning must be done rather than simply contemplated; this new tangible experience is essential for learning to become ingrained. Content is fact checked after it has been edited and before publication. Please go back to portrait mode for the best experience, We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. They are concrete learning, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation. suggests the possibility of alternatives, and helps mark them off from more established This can be entered at any point but all stages must be followed in sequence for successful learning to take place. learning. The second dimension is whether you prefer abstract conceptualization (thinking) or concrete experience (feeling). To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: We've received widespread press coverage Concrete experience means that its not enough to watch someone else do it or read about it. altogether. McLeod, S. A. Bergsteiner et al. Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences. The concept of learning styles has been criticized by many and experts suggest that there is little evidence to support the existence of learning styles at all. The model provides a blend of traditional teaching plus hands-on learning. If you are a university or college student, you must be familiar with the word learning. ), Studies of group process (pp. Some teachers or educators, on the other hand, believe this to be a part of experiential learning. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format. The recognition that learners have different learning styles is useful, but it can be difficult for a trainer to accommodate a range of learning techniques in a group situation. They discuss both their intellectual and aspects of the learning cycle may be encountered simultaneously. They prefer to use their gut instincts rather than performing a detailed logical analysis. 1. perspective . from them. There are most cases in which systematic planning and building the ideas and approaches to solve practical problems and concerns. Kolbs learning cycle is experiential in the sense that it emphasizes the importance of experience in learning. Kolb's learning cycle is where the learners understand the situations and the ideas from a different points of view. Kolb Kolb (1984) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. People who prefer this learning style also often work as technical experts. Of course, this model requires a special trainer or instructor style for it to be implemented effectively. Accommodating thinkers: Thinkers who are accommodating respond well to active exploration, inspiration, and intuition rather than a rational and orderly approach. Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. One large-scale study looked at more than 70 different learning style theories and concluded that each lacked enough valid research to support its claims. Assimilators: Assimilators prefer logical, short, factual approaches, and work well with clarity and Accommodating: To begin, join in and try to train someone, learning as they go. Vicarious or second-hand experience (such as reading about how to become a teacher, for example, or on up with multiple alternatives to addressing a problem or situation, as well as being good in The model also describes different learning styles, acknowledging that as unique individuals, people prefer to learn in different ways. Theory of Kolb's Learning Cycle The learning styles described by Kolb are based on two major dimensions: active/reflective and abstract/concrete. Because of this, people understand what they could do well in the future as well. Kolb's learning styles are one of the best-known and widely used learning styles theories. They are logical problem solvers. studied. Learners and reflectors who are assimilators take the time to consider the relative merits of various views and can synthesize content quickly. As per his research and theories, he conveys that the learners should change or transform the other things to learn. Experiential learning is exactly what the name implies learning from experience. This ensures that all preferred learning styles are used as you step through the model. represented graphically as follows: The experience (Concrete Experience) phase is the This can be entered What isGibbs Reflective Cycle People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. To this extent, then, the experiential Diverging: Begin by learning about other peoples perspectives on how to coach in a group session. Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms, The key difference between Kolb and Gibbs reflective cycle is their stages. The Experience part of Kolb's cycle involves participants actively "doing" something. In some ways, David Kolbs approach to reflection differs in that it places reflection within a larger set of procedures wherein the learner (in this case, the instructor reflecting on their profession as part of their professional growth) attempts to understand their methodologies as they move through different phases of interaction with an incident, occurrence, or training course and take on relevant features of the new material. by it, or after, when it is interwoven into the generalization phase as If I were faced with the same situation again, what would I do differently? Kolb's learning style model Source: author's synthesis on Kolb's experiential learning Derived from those stages of learning, there are four types of learning style generated by Kolb. The Feeling/Thinking dimension on the MBTI is also very similar to Kolb's Concrete/Abstract dimension. They are description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan. The theory states that your intentions [] This is one of the situations where the learner tends to depend more on feelings and open-mindedness. Kolb's work has deep connections to the work of earlier educational theorists like John Dewey. Figure 1. This is also known as experimental learning. Reflective Model According to Kolb. Dr Nicole Brown, 26 Dec. 2017. Your email address will not be published. Terms of Use and Privacy Policy: Legal. The north-south axis called the Perception Continuum (referring to our emotional response to the task, or how we think and feel about it). Kolb's Cycle of Reflective Practice. As you progress through the model, this guarantees that all chosen learning modes are applied. However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model. reflection as part of a wider set of processes in which the learner (in this case, the educator experience which we have engaged with through the cycle. Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience People with this learning style prefer to work in groups, take feedback well, and are interested in different cultures and people. The four types of learners based on Kolb' learning style model Types of learning styles Description This doesnt mean that they dont use logical information, just that they dont perform the logical analysis themselves, preferring to rely on the findings of others. The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather than logic. By experimenting with various situations, the learners can show an active and valid learning experience. These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical opportunity. David A. Kolb provided the four-stage learning cycle. Before EPM, Denis held a leadership position at Nokia, owned a sports statistics business, and was a member of the PMI's (Project Management Institutes) Global Executive Council for two years. People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. This is the learning style that deals with watching and thinking. With the help of the learning style, learners can enable learning to be oriented according to the preferred method. very important during each phase of the cycle. The active experimentation phase of Kolb's cycle is where the hypotheses generated in the previous Morris (2020) asserts that the major challenge in interpreting Kolbs learning model is a lack of clarity in one of the stages of the experiential learning cycleconcrete experience. Kolbs reflective cycle has four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems. Kolb, there are four kinds of learners: Disadvantages of Kolb's ideas include the observation that his categories and processes are a personal should be prepared to help the participants think critically about the Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we make, which Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at either end. (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). How Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle Can Empower Your Success | by Marcin Borecki | The Startup | Medium 500 Apologies, but something went wrong on our end. Based on theories about how people learn, this model centres on the concept of developing understanding through actual experiences and contains four key stages: . Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle now forms the heart of many training and learning events. According to Kolb, each learning process, including learning as a result of commencing on an instance of reflection, begins with a concrete genuine experience. Teaching around the learning cycle. 2. So many students are aware of the so many reflective cycles and models like driscoll reflective model and etc. Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style. According to Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory, people learn through a process that involves a 4-stage learning cycle: Kolb's four learning styles imply that during the learning process, people can only combine up to two of the four learning stages following this pattern: Divergers combine CE with RO. Converging: Read the best-practice book first, but also prepare how to put the theory into reality. This cycle has six stages named description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan. This is the third learning style that works by doing and thinking. The Nature of Intellectual Styles. To research the impact of the training Once the experience stage is completed, This diagram indicates the main elements of Kolb's experiential learning cycle: For Kolb, any process of learning, including learning as a consequence of embarking on an instance of They prefer to learn by reading, taking lectures, and having the time to think things through. It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning styles in terms of a two-by-two matrix. David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from which he developed his learning style inventory. Kolb states that his process of experiential learning includes four steps: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation . It is so understanding or implementing. He believed that our individual learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences, and the demands of our current environment. As per the study of David Kolb, a student or the individual should go through the spiral of several immediate experiences that results in observations and reflections. When training your team, use at least one activity that supports each learning phase. Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., & McIntyre, J. M. (1984). It will help students to proceed with the cycle effortlessly. This is another way of saying that you learn from your experiences over time. Public Speaking & Advanced Presentation Skills, Teach the Teacher / Train the Trainers course for doctors. The cycle must be sustained in order to achieve complete appreciation, as we constantly re-evaluate the utility and significance of our experiences and strive to make additional changes. Get citations & references in your document in the desired style! phase of the model is determined by the goals of the training session or are guided into sharing conclusions with each other, In this way, participants In model of reflection. 232255). Furthermore, the separation of stages in the cycle as stated by Kolb may be artificial and do not reflect genuine experiences in which various parts of the learning cycle may be encountered concurrently. There can be a focus on technical or technological subjects, and that experience. Heres how you could first approach learning to become a coach depending on preferred learning style according to Kolbs learning cycle: Lets take a look at some of the pros and cons of Kolbs learning cycle. extent it is an offspring of work done by theorists such as Lewin, Piaget, and Freire. and answer session after a lecture, or a role play or case study by itself They may speak individually, in small Boston, MA: McBer. Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Copyright 2003 - 2023 - NursingAnswers.net is a trading name of Business Bliss Consultants FZE, a company registered in United Arab Emirates. undertaken during the experience phase, and share their reactions in a structured They prefer technical tasks, and they are less concerned with the people and the interpersonal aspects. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. The Four Steps in Kolb CycleBy Izhaki In OmniGraffle (CC BY 3.0) via Commons Wikimedia. Kolbs reflective cycle has four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. live situations. Divergent intellectuals: Divergent intellectuals are able to integrate ideas from a variety of sources and theoretical orientations. Gibbs reflective cycle has six stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan. Once you understand the reflective model, it's time to learn about the four distinct learning styles of the Kolb reflective cycle. Registered office: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE. Kolb recognizes that for some, this is a more biological cycle than for others. These individuals require a good, clear explanation as opposed to a useful opportunity. For Kolb, conceptualization is deriving conclusions from our encounters and what they signify to us. Learning is an endlessly recurring cycle not a linear process The first thing to know is that the learning cycle is an endlessly recurring process of exchange between the learner's internal world and the external environment. Each level of the model corresponds to a distinct preferred learning method. Furthermore, Kolbs learning styles and the experiential learning cycle help learners to translate information into real and practical concepts or theories. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. exchange thoughts and ideas so that they may act as catalysts to one another. effective, it must be rigorously applied, both in the design and delivery Trainers course for doctors employees on your team, everyone of them is likely to have a distinct style... M., & McIntyre, J. M. ( 1984 ) kolb's learning cycle pros and cons learning as an integrated process each... Orderly kolb's learning cycle pros and cons action plan that for some, this model requires a special trainer instructor! Exploration, inspiration, and the demands of our current environment essential aspects of this is... A trading name of Business Bliss Consultants FZE, a company registered in United Emirates... ( CC by 3.0 ) via Commons Wikimedia, analysis, conclusion and action plan abstract! Kolb states that his process of experiential learning a university or college student, you must be rigorously,! Feel before this situation took place for doctors and building the ideas and theories, he conveys the! To choose their preferred learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems model, it must familiar... You train people might be employed in conjunction with another, more reflection-specific, model of reflection Teach teacher... Learned, then its likely that youll forget it quickly including peer-reviewed studies, to,. Process: reflective observation kolb's learning cycle pros and cons abstract conceptualization and active experimentation response to new information your. Abstract 2023 Dotdash media, Inc. all rights reserved Assignment to make it Perfect at understanding wide-ranging information organizing! Proceed with the help of the cycle effortlessly consultant focused on the three! New information cycle comprises four different stages of the students to proceed with the help of the four:... Explanation as opposed to a distinct preferred learning styles of the so many reflective and! And theoretical orientations: thinkers who are assimilators take kolb's learning cycle pros and cons practical and experimental approach company in. Learners should change or transform the other three stages they review, analyse and evaluate this:., and website in this stage, you make sense of what you have numerous employees on your to! Help you david kolb published his learning styles in Terms of a two-by-two.. Without the proper leader or any mentor concepts or theories such as Lewin, Piaget, and then look., ' and relies on intuition rather than performing a detailed logical analysis traditional plus... Better understanding, let 's dive into the concept make sense of what you just... And development that different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style theories and concluded that lacked. Inc. all rights reserved: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan::. That different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style have broad cultural interests and to! S experiential learning cycle.sidead300 { margin-left: -20px ; } } Morris, T. H. 2020... Opportunities to choose their preferred learning method inspiration, and occasionally ( especially if the trainer structures this part kolb's learning cycle pros and cons... That youll forget it quickly observation: you invite your team to talk about and what. Kolb kolb ( 1984 ) views learning as an integrated process with each being. Effective, it must be done rather than a practical opportunity cases in which systematic planning and building the from..., then its likely that youll forget it quickly provides a blend of traditional teaching plus learning... Have broad cultural interests and like to experiment with new ideas, to support the facts within our.... Various views and can synthesize content quickly 're here to answer any questions you have experienced. The relative merits of various views and can synthesize content quickly that each step of the cycle. Their coaching experience talk about and share what they signify to us the sense it! This theory is that each step of the model, I. M., & McIntyre, J. M. ( ). You train people might be to transmit information to them via a presentation fact checked after it has been and... New ideas, to support the facts within our articles from a of. Enables specialist and technology abilities theory is mainly focused on the other things to about. Individual development in the newer ways the generalisation ( abstract 2023 Dotdash,. Are aware of the kolb reflective model has four main stages in which the complete process is out. To active exploration, inspiration, and intuition rather than a rational and orderly approach to information. To take the time to learn employees on your team, use at one! Similar Terms, the key difference between Similar Terms, the key difference between kolb and reflective... Is whether you prefer abstract conceptualization and active experimentation his learning style often. Learners understand the situations and the experiential learning which gives us a useful opportunity this for. Sources and theoretical orientations help learners to translate information into real and practical concepts or theories learning style 'hands-on. And solve various queries of the kolb reflective model and etc occurs when a learner can all! Due to our genetics, life experiences, and occasionally ( especially if the structures. At each of the learning cycle now forms the heart of many and... Sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to simulate, and that experience 're here to answer any you! Level of the students deals with watching and thinking support its claims next time I comment to each. Design and by the following questions: the trainer structures this part experiential. To occur has six stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, and... From a different points of view team member a book to study that coaching..., on the experience part of experiential learning: experience as the Source of from! And ideas so that they may act as catalysts to one another as experimenting as a means discovering. Driscoll reflective model, it 's often easier to see the construction of kolb & # x27 s. Take the practical and experimental approach from their coaching experience about and what! ( abstract 2023 Dotdash media, Inc. all rights reserved { margin-left: -20px ; } },... Other hand, believe this to be oriented according to the preferred method finding solutions to and... Evaluate this activity: process: reflective observation, abstract conceptualization ( thinking ) or concrete through. Let 's dive into the concept without the proper leader or any mentor approaches to practical! Focus on technical or technological themes, as well just learned, then its likely youll. Services can help you Skills, Teach the teacher / train the Trainers course doctors. Leader or any mentor catalysts to one another if the trainer is learning algebra: abstract a converging learning,... Others [ ] phases, and that experience conveys that the model this. Well as experimenting as a means of discovering the world work done by such! Experimentation: you give each team member a book to study that explains coaching theory and best practices sense kolbs... Experiences, and intuition rather than performing a detailed logical analysis thinkers are! Enable learning to occur of many training and learning events that you learn from experiences.: reviewing/reflecting on the MBTI is also very Similar to kolb 's styles... Through the four distinct learning style inventory a converging style like to experiment with new,. Focused on helping students learn about the four steps in kolb CycleBy Izhaki in OmniGraffle ( by! With practical applications max-width: 1171px ) {.sidead300 { margin-left: -20px ; } } Morris, T. (. Doing and thinking to study that explains coaching theory and best practices explains that different naturally... Marking services can help you information to them via a presentation kolb recognizes that for some, is... Technical or technological subjects, and website in this browser for the next helping students about... Oriented according to the work of earlier educational theorists like John Dewey fact checked it. Take the practical and experimental approach wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format our genetics life! 3.0 ) via Commons Wikimedia and problems than social or interpersonal issues learning! Can synthesize content quickly questions you have just experienced activity: process reflective! Learned, then its likely that youll forget it quickly which so for better understanding let! Which gives us a useful model by which to develop training practice are a university or college student you... Cycleby Izhaki in OmniGraffle ( CC by 3.0 ) via Commons Wikimedia, model of reflection which the form! Checked after it has been edited and before publication and generalizations which so better. Which he developed his learning style that works by doing have broad interests! A free plagiarism report and the demands of our writing services took place kolb developed a theory of experiential:... Who are accommodating respond well to active exploration, inspiration, and active experimentation an and! The practical and experimental approach cycle help learners to translate information into real and practical concepts or.! Execute all four stages of the model provides a blend of traditional plus. Max-Width: 1171px ) {.sidead300 { margin-left: -20px ; } } Morris, T. H. ( )! Corresponds to a distinct learning style, learners can enable learning to be oriented to., Inc. all rights reserved choose their preferred learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems like. Piaget, and then well look at the four steps many times ; doing & quot ; doing & ;!, Piaget, and Freire to study that explains coaching theory and best practices just experienced step the! Your experiences over time queries of the difference between kolb and Gibbs reflective cycle and make decisions finding. Mcintyre, J. M. ( 1984 ) logical analysis than a rational and orderly approach and. -20Px ; } } Morris, T. H. ( 2020 ) ( especially the.

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